OPINION OF THE COURT BY JUSTICE HUGHES.
On May 21, 2011, Appellant Jerry Jamgotchian claimed Rochitta, a bay filly, for $42,400 in a claiming race at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky. Foaled February 26, 2008 in Pennsylvania, Rochitta was first purchased at the 2009 Keeneland Yearling Sales in Lexington, Kentucky for $160,000 by Rabbah Bloodstock. Prior to her debut at Churchill Downs, Rochitta had run previously at Saratoga Race Course and Belmont Park in New York as well as Keeneland Racecourse and Turfway Park in Kentucky. She had never finished better than third place (in two races at Turfway) prior to the maiden claiming race at Churchill Downs where she finished second. After being claimed by Jamgotchian on May 21, 2011, Rochitta's next race was on July 8, 2011 at Presque Isle Downs in Erie, Pennsylvania where she again had a second place finish. She raced three more times that summer at Presque Isle before heading to the Mountaineer Racetrack in Chester, West Virginia where she claimed her first victory on October 14, 2011. Her next and final races were at Tampa Bay Downs in Florida in December 2011 and January 2012. Having concluded her multi-state racing career, Rochitta was shipped to the Tattersalls December 2012 Mares Sale in Newmarket, England by her new owner where she sold for $480,330. At sale, Rochitta was in foal, having been covered by
Rochitta's life and times are of interest to this Court because she is the basis for Jerry Jamgotchian's claim that certain Kentucky thoroughbred racing regulations violate the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. The regulations challenged provide in pertinent part:
810 Kentucky Administrative Regulations (KAR) 1:015, § 1 (1), (6). Violations of these provisions can, among other things, result in the purchaser of the horse being fined or having his or her Kentucky owner's license suspended. 810 KAR 1:028.
The question this case poses is whether these restrictions on the transfer and racing of claimed thoroughbreds, restrictions often referred to in the industry as the "claiming jail" (and referred to herein as the "Article 6 restrictions" or simply as "Article 6"), run afoul of the so-called "negative" or "dormant" Commerce Clause. Dormant Commerce Clause jurisprudence derives from the limitation on state regulatory authority that the United States Supreme Court has found implicit in the federal Constitution's Commerce Clause (U.S. Const., Art. I, § 8, cl. 3), which grants Congress the power "[t]o regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes." We are convinced that the challenged Kentucky regulations — regulations similar (often identical) to regulations in effect in the large majority of states that allow wagering on thoroughbred horse races — do not conflict with the federal Constitution's insistence on an interstate commerce unburdened by state-erected barriers against that commerce.
The challenged regulations are merely evolved, updated versions of regulations that have applied to "selling" or "claiming" — type horse races for hundreds of years, but, more importantly, they are by no means pervasive and unavoidable governmental restrictions because any thoroughbred horse (including Rochitta as her history illustrates) can be bought and sold (assuming a willing buyer and willing seller) in Kentucky without regard to these regulations through either a private sale transaction or at auction. In essence, the buyer who claims a horse at a licensed Kentucky race track has voluntarily chosen a form of purchase that is closely
Turning to the constitutional issues, we agree with the lower courts that the Commonwealth is not actually a market participant as that concept is currently understood in dormant Commerce Clause jurisprudence, but we cannot agree with their conclusions that regulating thoroughbred racing is itself a governmental function that results in all racing regulations getting the usual "government" pass under the Commerce Clause. We do recognize, however, as did the lower courts, that thoroughbred racing only exists because the Commonwealth allows it to exist with extensive regulation of racetracks and the requisite pari-mutuel betting (legalized gambling) necessary to racing's survival. The uniqueness of this industry, an industry that depends on the blessing of the state for its very existence, but more importantly the limited scope and terms of the voluntarily-encountered Article 6 regulation demand the nuanced approach to dormant Commerce Clause analysis which has characterized several United States Supreme Court opinions. So, while Jamgotchian, as a claiming owner, has a sufficient "case or controversy" to sustain this action, he does not have a winning claim. When Article 6 is placed in its proper context it is essentially a contract term that has evolved, not for economic protectionism, but to advance the underlying purpose of a claiming race, the classification of thoroughbreds for racing purposes. Jamgotchian knowingly and voluntarily agreed to this limited restriction when he sought the benefits of claiming Rochitta in a regulated claiming race rather than buying her in a private sale transaction or at auction. In the final analysis, Article 6 survives the strict scrutiny applicable to laws that appear facially discriminatory, and, accordingly, we affirm the lower courts.
Jamgotchian is, or at least was in 2011 when this case arose, a California resident and a leading owner of thoroughbred race horses. According to Jamgotchian's complaint, he owned at that time in excess of eighty thoroughbred horses, and in the first half of 2011 his horses were so successful at winning purses that he ranked as one of the United States' seventy winningest thoroughbred owners. Among the tracks where Jamgotchian was licensed and where his horses raced was Churchill Downs, a race track licensed by the Commonwealth of Kentucky.
In this country presently, thoroughbred horse racing is conducted for the most part by licensed racing associations
As a claimer, Rochitta was subject to the "Article 6" restrictions, and thus was not to be sold or transferred for thirty days, except via "another claiming race," and, absent steward permission for an in-state exception, she was not to race "elsewhere," i.e., anyplace other than Churchill Downs, until the close of entries for Churchill's spring meet (July 1, 2011, according to the Commission). Notwithstanding Article 6, in May and June, 2011, prior to the end of Churchill's meeting, Jamgotchian sought to enter Rochitta in several races in Pennsylvania, including the Lyphard Stakes run in mid-June at the Penn National Race Course in Grantville, Pennsylvania, and a race (apparently a claiming race) on June 28, 2011 at Presque Isle Downs in Erie, Pennsylvania. As it happened, Rochitta did not run in any of those races,
The trial court explained its conclusion by invoking two lines of analysis. Under the first, a line one might refer to as standard dormant Commerce Clause analysis, the court began by asking whether the challenged regulations discriminate against interstate commerce. It determined that they do not, since they apply in the same way to all owners claiming horses, without distinction between Kentucky residents and non-residents such as Jamgotchian. In light of that determination, the trial court then asked whether the regulations imposed any incidental burdens on interstate commerce that out-weighed their benefits, whether interstate or intrastate. In the court's view, the Article 6 restrictions, because of their limited duration — about three months maximum — have a minimal effect, if any, on interstate commerce, whereas their benefit to Kentucky's thoroughbred racing industry, an industry, of course, in which Kentucky takes a keen interest, both economically and culturally, is substantial. As the trial court saw it, the Article 6 restrictions, by tending to counteract one of the drains on the supply of horses competing at a given meet, encourage larger race fields at that meet, which in turn increases the interest in and the amount of money wagered on the meet's races, a benefit resulting in larger purses, payoffs, handle,
That conclusion was bolstered, in the trial court's view, by a second line of dormant Commerce-Clause analysis, a line the United States Supreme Court introduced relatively recently in the cases United Haulers Ass'n. Inc. v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Mgmt. Auth., 550 U.S. 330, 127 S.Ct. 1786, 167 L.Ed.2d 655 (2007) and Dep't of Revenue of Kentucky v. Davis, 553 U.S. 328, 128 S.Ct. 1801, 170 L.Ed.2d 685 (2008). As the trial court characterized them, those cases stand for the proposition that "government action[s] in discharging traditional government functions are outside the scope of the restrictions of the Commerce Clause." Jamgotchian v. Ky. Horse Racing Comm'n, 11-CI-01047, p. 4 (Nov. 29, 2012). Rather than the standard dormant Commerce-Clause analysis, under these cases, according to the trial court, even a discriminatory state regulation does not violate the dormant Commerce Clause provided the discrimination favors the state itself in its pursuit of one of its "traditional government functions," as opposed to the more typical protectionism set up in favor of local private interests.
Jamgotchian appealed from that decision and the Court of Appeals affirmed. If anything, that Court embraced even more enthusiastically than had the trial court the traditional-government-function line of analysis. It agreed with the trial court that "the regulation of horse racing is, and always has been, a traditional government function, at least since 1894 in Kentucky." Jamgotchian v. Kentucky Horse Racing Comm'n, No.2012-CA-002154-MR, p. 7 (Feb. 7, 2014). And having made the "involvement" of a traditional government function the first question to address in determining the Commerce-Clause validity of a challenged regulation, the Court of Appeals panel relegated the standard Commerce Clause concerns of discrimination against and undue burden upon interstate commerce to roles as minor factors of no real concern when states are engaged in their "traditional functions."
We granted Jamgotchian's motion for discretionary review to address his dormant Commerce Clause assertions but are compelled first to address the Commission's assertion that given the relevant facts surrounding Rochitta's attempts to race in Pennsylvania in the summer of 2011, there is no case or controversy for this Court to consider.
As noted above, the constitutional question at the heart of this case was presented to the trial court by way of the parties' competing motions for summary judgment. Summary judgment is appropriate if, but only if, construed favorably to the non-movant, the record shows "that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law." Kentucky Rule of Civil Procedure (CR) 56.03. Under our rule, summary judgment should not be granted if it appears that the non-movant has any realistic chance of producing evidence that would warrant a favorable judgment. Labor Ready, Inc. v. Johnston, 289 S.W.3d 200, 203 (Ky.2009) (citing Steelvest, Inc. v. Scansteel Service Ctr., Inc., 807 S.W.2d 476, 480 (Ky.1991)). We review the trial court's "no issue of material fact" determination without deference under that "any realistic chance" standard. Stilger v. Flint, 391 S.W.3d 751, 753 (Ky.2013) (citing Hammons v. Hammons, 327 S.W.3d 444, 448 (Ky.2010)). The trial court's "matter of law" conclusions, of course, including its construction of statutory and constitutional provisions, we review de novo. Nash v. Campbell Cty. Fiscal Court, 345 S.W.3d 811, 816 (Ky.2011) ("[O]n appeal of a summary judgment, ... [i]ssues of law are reviewed de novo."); Bd. of Educ. v. Hurley, 396 S.W.3d 879, 885 (Ky.2013) (noting that statutory construction is a matter of law); Greene v. Commonwealth, 349 S.W.3d 892, 898 (Ky. 2011) (constitutional construction is a matter
The Commission contends that Kentucky courts (this Court as well as the lower courts) do "not have jurisdiction over Jamgotchian's declaratory judgment claim because there is no case or controversy." The Commission argues, essentially, that while the Rochitta incident may have caused some sparks it did not result in flames: notwithstanding Jamgotchian's threats and attempts to race Rochitta in Pennsylvania, she did not race "elsewhere" during her Churchill "jail" period, and consequently the Commission never sanctioned Jamgotchian. Without some such concrete injury or consequence to complain about, the Commission insists, Jamgotchian's assertions that he might have been sanctioned in conjunction with Rochitta or that he might face sanctions in the future in conjunction with some future Kentucky-claimed horse are simply too speculative to satisfy the requirement that courts address only "actual" controversies, not speculative or academic ones. We agree with the courts below, however, that Jamgotchian's eligibility as a licensed owner in good standing to claim horses at Churchill Downs renders his interest in the constitutionality of Kentucky's claiming regulations sufficiently concrete to satisfy Kentucky Revised Statute (KRS) 418.040, our declaratory judgment statute. That statute allows a plaintiff to ask for, and a court to make, a declaration of rights provided that the court otherwise has jurisdiction and "it is made to appear that an actual controversy exists."
As we explained in Jarvis v. National City, 410 S.W.3d 148, 153 (Ky.2013), a declaratory judgment action allows persons within, or arguably within, the scope of a statute "to have their rights and obligations [under the statute] declared without being forced to act improperly and initiate litigation after an injury has occurred." In that case, the corporate trustees of testamentary trusts sought a declaratory judgment regarding their right to charge reasonable fees for their services rather than being constrained by a rigid fee structure imposed by a since-repealed statute in effect when the trusts were created. The trustees and the beneficiaries of the trusts were of differing views regarding allowable trustee compensation so the risk of "wrong action" was real and the controversy was "actual," not merely theoretical or hypothetical. By contrast, in Foley v. Commonwealth, 306 S.W.3d 28 (Ky.2010), this Court upheld the denial of a motion for a declaration that Kentucky's self-defense statutes were unconstitutional, finding no justiciable case or controversy. The denial was proper in Foley because the challenged self-defense statutes had no foreseeable application to the movant himself.
This case is far more like Jarvis than like Foley. Jamgotchian was, and apparently remains, an eligible claimant under Kentucky's thoroughbred claiming rules with a demonstrated interest in exercising that eligibility and exercising it in a way the Commission is apt to deem "wrongful." Eliminating or minimizing such a genuine risk of "wrong" action by any of the parties "is the very purpose of declaratory judgment actions." Jarvis, 410 S.W.3d at 153. Thus, as the Court of Appeals correctly determined, the trial court did not exceed its jurisdiction under KRS 418.040 by entertaining Jamgotchian's complaint.
In Department of Revenue of Kentucky v. Davis, Justice Souter summarized the Supreme Court's modern dormant Commerce Clause doctrine and its standard test for Commerce Clause compliance as follows:
553 U.S. at 337-39, 128 S.Ct. 1801 (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). Thus summarized, Commerce Clause analysis seems straight forward enough. First, is the challenged provision discriminatory, i.e., does it intend or bring about "`differential treatment of in-state and out-of-state economic interests that benefits the former and burdens the latter'"? United Haulers, 550 U.S. at 338, 127 S.Ct. 1786 (quoting Oregon Waste Sys., Inc. v. Dep't of Environmental Quality of Ore., 511 U.S. 93, 99, 114 S.Ct. 1345, 128 L.Ed.2d 13 (1994)). If so, the provision is considered per se invalid unless the state overcomes that presumption by demonstrating a legitimate (i.e., nonprotectionist) purpose for the discrimination and by showing that the purpose cannot be adequately served in a different, non-discriminatory way. If not discriminatory on its face, the challenged provision is valid, unless the challenger can show that, although seemingly non-discriminatory, the provision nevertheless burdens interstate commerce in a way or to a degree that is
Invoking this formula, Jamgotchian maintains that the Article 6 restrictions are discriminatory on their face, since they expressly prohibit the owners of thoroughbreds newly claimed in Kentucky from racing those horses at out-of-state tracks, tracks that compete with the Kentucky tracks where the newly claimed horses are allowed to race. Article 6 is thus presumptively invalid, according to Jamgotchian, and it must be struck down unless the Commission can show that it serves a legitimate, non-protectionist purpose for which there exist no alternative, non-discriminatory means. Since the Commission does not argue that Article 6 would survive that sort of strict scrutiny,
As the Supreme Court has itself acknowledged, however, Commerce Clause analysis is a more nuanced undertaking than the simple summary of it might suggest. General Motors Corp. v. Tracy, 519 U.S. 278, 298 n. 12, 117 S.Ct. 811, 136 L.Ed.2d 761 (1997) (citing Brown-Forman Distillers Corp. v. New York State Liquor Auth., 476 U.S. 573, 579, 106 S.Ct. 2080, 90 L.Ed.2d 552 (1986), for the observation that "no clear line" separates the "discriminatory" from the "non-discriminatory" strands of dormant Commerce Clause analysis). For instance, the Supreme Court has fashioned a number of exceptions to the standard analysis, such as, for example, United Haulers, 550 U.S. at 330, 127 S.Ct. 1786 (upholding discriminatory regulation in favor of "traditional public function" as opposed to discrimination in favor of private enterprise); Davis, 553 U.S. at 328, 128 S.Ct. 1801 (applying that same exception to a discriminatory tax); Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp., 426 U.S. 794, 810, 96 S.Ct. 2488, 49 L.Ed.2d 220 (1976) (upholding discriminatory regulation that favored, as opposed to private enterprise, the government's own "participation in the market."); Henneford v. Silas Mason, Co., 300 U.S. 577, 57 S.Ct. 524, 81 L.Ed. 814 (1937) (upholding discriminatory interstate use tax that merely "compensated" for intrastate sales tax). The Court has also rejected a knee-jerk approach to both the initial determination of whether a challenged law discriminates, General Motors Corp. v. Tracy, 519 U.S. at 278, 117 S.Ct. 811 (upholding an apparently discriminatory tax exemption for local natural gas utilities when, upon closer
To say that the challenged claiming jail regulation is per se invalid is to ignore the overarching principles of dormant Commerce Clause jurisprudence in favor of a narrow-lens view. That narrow view ignores the challenged regulation's origin and purpose; its minimal effect on the realm of commerce in which it operates, namely thoroughbred horses; and the knowing and voluntary choice on the part of claiming owners such as Jamgotchian necessary to even bring the regulation into play. As discussed more fully infra, the challenged regulation appears to be somewhat unique in the reported cases because not only is it not comprehensive and pervasive in its effect on commerce (applying only to claimed thoroughbreds, as opposed to all Kentucky-purchased thoroughbreds, and then only for a matter of weeks at most), it is essentially a contract term that is knowingly and voluntarily agreed to by any prospective owner who opts to purchase via a claiming race at a Kentucky track as opposed to through a private sale transaction or at auction. Before turning to the thoroughbred industry generally and the history and specifics of claiming races and their regulation, we first address the lower courts' conclusions regarding the applicability of the governmental function exception to dormant Commerce Clause analysis.
In granting summary judgment to the Commission and in affirming that Judgment, the trial court and the Court of Appeals both relied in significant part on United Haulers Ass'n, Inc. v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Mgmt Auth., decided in 2007, and Dep't of Revenue of Kentucky v. Davis, decided in 2008. In United
The Court found the private entity/public corporation distinction constitutionally significant. For, while the Court's Commerce Clause cases had long employed a presumption that state laws discriminating against interstate commerce in favor of local private enterprise were motivated by the sort of "simple economic protectionism" the Commerce Clause is meant to prevent, and hence "are subject to a Virtually per se rule of invalidity,"' 550 U.S. at 338, 127 S.Ct. 1786 (quoting Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U.S. 617, 624, 98 S.Ct. 2531, 57 L.Ed.2d 475 (1978)), that presumption is not appropriate with respect to laws favoring the government itself. As the United Haulers Court explained,
550 U.S. at 342-43, 127 S.Ct. 1786 (citations omitted). Accordingly, laws favoring government can be deemed non-discriminatory for Commerce Clause purposes (provided all private companies — in-state and out-of-state — are treated the same), and can be upheld without the rigorous scrutiny typically applied to laws favoring instate businesses vis-à-vis out-of-state competition, since "[l]aws favoring local government ... may be directed toward any number of legitimate goals unrelated to protectionism." 550 U.S. at 343, 127 S.Ct. 1786.
The contrary approach, the Court worried, i.e, treating public and private entities the same under the dormant Commerce Clause, "would lead to unprecedented and unbounded interference by the courts with state and local government." Id. The impropriety of such judicial interference was underscored in United Haulers, the Court noted, by the fact that "[w]aste disposal is both typically and traditionally a local government function." 550 U.S. at 344, 127 S.Ct. 1786 (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). In line with that tradition, the New York counties before the Court had opted not to rely on competition among private firms to address their increasingly pressing and complex solid waste management problems, but instead had displaced that competition with regulation and monopoly public control. "We may or may not agree with that approach," the Court summed up, "but nothing in the Commerce Clause vests the responsibility for that policy judgment with the Federal Judiciary." 550 U.S. at 344-45, 127 S.Ct. 1786.
The Court reiterated its United Haulers holding in Dep't of Revenue of Kentucky v.
Indeed, concerns about undue interference with so basic a government function as bond issuance led the Court to go further and to explain that Kentucky's laws could be upheld under United Haulers even without the lesser sort of scrutiny (so called Pike balancing after the rule in Pike v. Bruce Church, 397 U.S. 137, 90 S.Ct. 844) often applied to non-discriminatory state laws to insure that they do not burden interstate commerce unreasonably. Such rational-basis type scrutiny was not appropriate in this case, the Court insisted, because the questions involved exceeded the Court's capacity to provide answers.
553 U.S. at 356, 128 S.Ct. 1801.
United Haulers and Davis, therefore, stand for the proposition that regulations and tax provisions favoring the government's own functions, at least functions the government has traditionally performed, are not subject to the same skepticism and the same scrutiny under the Commerce Clause as that applied to regulations and tax provisions favoring local private enterprises at the expense of interstate commerce. We agree with Jamgotchian that United Haulers and Davis do not control here, because, unlike the municipal waste processing at issue in United Haulers and the municipal bonds at the heart of Davis, thoroughbred horse racing is not, in Kentucky at any rate, a government function.
Against this conclusion, the Commission argues (and the courts below agreed) that while horse racing itself may not be a traditional government function for the purposes of United Haulers and Davis, in Kentucky the regulation of horseracing certainly is. According to the Commission, thoroughbred racing is vital not only to Kentucky's economy — a healthy racing industry being crucial to the health of Kentucky's substantial thoroughbred breeding industry — but to its very identity as "the Bluegrass State." Given how thoroughly regulated that industry has been for more than a century now
This argument has some definite appeal, and it might give us pause, had the Supreme Court not already rejected its equivalent. Justice Souter's dissent in C & A Carbone, after all, made a very similar argument to the effect that the waste processing facility deemed in that case to have been given a monopoly over local waste processing in derogation of the Commerce Clause was in actuality a municipal facility notwithstanding the fact that technically it was private. Only two other members of the Court, then-Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice Blackman, joined that dissent, and Justice Souter himself later noted in Davis that the C 3s A Carbone majority had not been overruled. 553 U.S. at 347, 128 S.Ct. 1801. In United Haulers, moreover, the Court clarified that what the C 3s A Carbone majority had rejected in the dissent was not its public/private distinction but rather its willingness to treat a legally private enterprise as a quasi-public one. 550 U.S. at 340, 127 S.Ct. 1786. The Commission's suggestion that we analyze thoroughbred racing in Kentucky as a quasi-public function notwithstanding the actual legal status of its participants is thus a position that we believe the Supreme Court has foreclosed.
The Commission's suggestion is also untenable in more general terms. The Commission
So simply regulating or even extensively regulating a private function does not render it a "government function" as the United Haulers Court made clear. That Court noted that the New York voters who had opted for the government to provide waste management services could just as well have left the matter to private enterprise, but if they had, "any regulation [the State] undertook could not discriminate against interstate commerce." 550 U.S. at 344, 127 S.Ct. 1786. Kentucky's regulation of thoroughbred horse racing, as extensive and as longstanding as that regulation may be, is not by itself sufficient to bring this case within the "traditional government function" rule of United Haulers and Davis.
As noted above, the trial court invoked United Haulers and Davis in an attempt to bolster its conclusion that the Article 6 restrictions do not violate the Commerce Clause. It reached that conclusion initially by applying the Supreme Court's standard Commerce-Clause analysis and determining that Article 6 does not discriminate against interstate commerce (resident and nonresident claiming owners being treated the same) and that it passes the Pike balancing test for reasonableness. Jamgotchian contends that the trial court's analysis went astray by failing to recognize that Article 6 does discriminate on its face against interstate commerce via the temporary ban on a claimed horse racing out-of-state and, consequently, the regulation's validity hinges on a much more exacting test than the one announced in Pike. Under this less forgiving, "strict scrutiny" approach, Jamgotchian insists Article 6 violates the federal Constitution per se.
Although we agree with Jamgotchian that in certain respects the trial court's analysis did not go far enough, we are convinced that his own analysis stops short. Heeding, or at least attempting to heed, the Supreme Court's example of resolving Commerce Clause challenges on the basis of commerce realities as much as on "rules" purportedly abstracted from the cases, we conclude that the trial court basically got it right: Notwithstanding a modicum of discrimination, Article 6 is part of a larger, non-discriminatory racing regulation, not a trade regulation, and its protectionist effect is negligible compared with its important racing benefits. More importantly, this regulation is knowingly and voluntarily agreed to by an owner seeking the advantages of a claiming race purchase; it is the legal consequence of a particular type of business transaction, not an unavoidable governmental regulation affecting all commerce in thoroughbred horses in the Commonwealth.
It is no surprise that the General Assembly placed the Horse Racing Commission within the Public Protection Cabinet. Horse racing as we know it "exists only because it is financed by the receipts from controlled legalized gambling which must be kept as far above suspicion as possible." Jacobson v. Maryland Racing Comm'n, 261 Md. 180, 274 A.2d 102 (1971). Indeed, in its unusually expansive statement of legislative purpose for KRS Chapter 230, the chapter devoted to Horse Racing and Showing, the Kentucky General Assembly acknowledges as much and more.
KRS 230.215(2).
This has been the Commission's charge since it was first established in 1906. State Racing Comm'n v. Latonia Agric. Ass'n, 136 Ky. 173, 123 S.W. 681 (1909) (upholding the Commission's enabling legislation and noting that the General Assembly had tasked and empowered the Commission to "promote the breeding of thoroughbred horses, and the conducting of legitimate races, and to prohibit the evil of unlawful gambling on the race courses"); Grainger v. Douglas Park Jockey Club, 148 F. 513, 540-41 (6th Cir. 1906) (upholding the Commission's authority to regulate horse racing in Kentucky and noting that "an invariable accompaniment of the operation of such race tracks [thoroughbred race tracks] is betting on the races there run.... Certainly legislation
As the General Assembly's statement of purpose for KRS Chapter 230 indicates, the public acceptance of thoroughbred racing continues to be a legislative concern and continues to require the oversight of the gambling that makes racing an industry rather than a hobby. Among the host of conditions necessary to public confidence in the industry is assurance that the races are fair and genuinely competitive. In trying to provide that assurance, the industry has developed an elaborate system for grading the racing ability of thoroughbred horses, often referred to as the horse's class, and has evolved a parallel system of graded races — from the richest stakes races for thoroughbreds of the highest class to the most obscure maiden claiming races for horses at the opposite end of the class spectrum. In simple terms, the grading systems are meant to make racing more transparent, by announcing the caliber of the horses involved in a particular race, and to insure that races pit only horses of roughly equal ability against each other. In the higher class races, entry conditions and handicapping by a track official ensure competitiveness. A track's handicapping resources are limited, however, so in the majority of races, competitiveness requires some other means. Biracree & Insinger at 217. Enter the claiming race.
As noted above, in its capacity as Kentucky's regulator of thoroughbred horse racing, the Commission has defined a "claiming race" as "any race in which every horse running in the race may be transferred in conformity with 810 KAR Chapter 1 [the thoroughbred racing chapter]." 810 KAR 1:001(12). Subchapter 15 of that chapter, the subchapter devoted to claiming races, provides in its first section what we might refer to as the basic claiming rule: "In claiming races a horse shall be subject to claim for its entered price by a licensed owner in good standing." As courts and commentators have observed, "[t]he purpose of the claiming race is to keep owners from entering superior horses in mediocre fields," and in that way "to foster competitive races." The United States Trotting Ass'n v. Chicago Downs Ass'n, Inc., 665 F.2d 781, 784 (7th Cir.
The claiming race works that feat by means of the claiming rule, under which a price is established beforehand, with the understanding that any horse entered in the race is, during a brief period just prior to the start of the race, being offered for sale at that price. An owner tempted to take advantage of the field by entering a superior horse will thus be deterred by the chance, the likelihood even, of losing a good horse, and of having to sell it for less than it is worth. Owners will be deterred from entering inferior horses simply by the fact that such horses have little chance of finishing in the money. The hope, reasonably borne out by centuries of experience, is that, generally at least, the claiming rule will result in transparent, competitive races. It has been so for a long time, as long as there has been thoroughbred racing. According to thoroughbred racing historians, a version of the claiming rule was in effect in England at least as early as 1689. Biracree & Insinger at 217.
By the mid-1800s, a more popular version of the rule had evolved. Under that version, the pre-race understanding was that after the race the winning horse would be auctioned off, with the owner given the claiming price, and any amount bid in excess of that price given to someone else, the someone else varying from place to place and time to time. Sometimes the excess went to the runner-up, sometimes to the track and sometimes it was divided among the track and the other entrants. Biracree & Insinger at 217-18. Eventually, however, that version of the rule, too, lost favor. Its wide application had resulted in a tremendous turnover of horses, and it was felt that rather than punishing the occasional owner who inappropriately dropped a horse in class to snatch a purse, it punished just as severely those owners and trainers who simply were good at preparing their appropriately classed horses for a race. Id.
The rule served its basic purpose too well to be abandoned, however, so eventually it evolved again, coming into its modern form, under which buyers must commit themselves to the claim/purchase before the race is run and who then own the horse regardless of how it fares in the race. In its modern guise, however, the claiming rule suffers from what those who study rules sometimes refer to as overbreadth. In seeking to deter a narrow form of conduct — the abuse of racing's class-system by an owner entering a superior horse in what is billed as and what is meant to be a lesser field — the rule applies not just to abusive owners but to "class-abiding" owners as well, subjecting everybody in the race to the risk of losing a good or a favored horse. The claiming rule's overbreadth also means that the claiming rule is itself subject to "abuse" by claimants who take advantage of it to claim not just patently and inappropriately undervalued horses, but other horses as well.
In Jacobson v. Maryland, for example, a Maryland racing steward testified that under the modern form of the claiming rule, "[a] claiming race is not intended to be a sales ring in which a clever horseman or
Similarly, in Gill v. Delaware Park, LLC, 294 F.Supp.2d 638, local horsemen and track officials had taken sufficient umbrage at what they regarded as Michael Gill's abusive claiming practices (Gill being, at the time, this country's largest-volume thoroughbred owner, with some 270 horses) to seek to ban him from the track. In describing that umbrage, the court notes that under Delaware's basic claiming rule (which is like ours), a tradition had grown up among many owners and trainers of not using the rule, except, presumably, for its narrow class-enforcing purpose. Gill, however, eschewed that tradition and used the claiming rule aggressively in what was, essentially, an attempt to "corner" the meet's purses.
Abuses, or perceived abuses, such as these gave rise to rules like the Article 6 restrictions at issue here, Jacobson, 274 A.2d at 104 (quoting the steward's testimony to the effect that to keep the claiming rule from turning claiming races into a "sales ring," restrictions had come to be imposed, such as "a horse cannot change ownership except by claim for sixty days, a horse cannot run at another track until the meeting in which he is claimed is terminated"). Such rules are meant to mitigate the claiming rule's overbreadth by attaching to claims costs that will tend to deter frivolous claims and by deterring aggressive claiming practices that undercut the claiming rule's primary, competition-furthering purpose. Like the claiming rule that they modify and support, short-lived restrictions on post-race conduct such as those in Article 6 have been adopted in a large majority of the jurisdictions that permit wagering on thoroughbred racing.
The effect of the Article 6 restrictions is not protectionist, either, as becomes apparent in light of the broad acceptance of the claiming rule as a vital tool of what amounts to a sort of owner self-regulation. As the Commission very candidly acknowledges, Kentucky's meet-duration ban on a local claimer's being raced "elsewhere" has some tendency to prevent disruption of the given meet through the loss of claimed horses. However, claiming "jail" does not give Kentucky's tracks any sort of meaningful leg up in their competition with out-of-state tracks since, even while Kentucky keeps access to the horses "jailed" here, it loses access to the horses "jailed" elsewhere, a situation the vast majority of tracks here and elsewhere understand, expect, and accept. Indeed, the mutuality of such restrictions is undoubtedly the explanation for the claims before us being advanced by a claiming owner instead of one of the "elsewhere" tracks at which a claimed horse cannot race for a few days or weeks. And lest this situation be mistaken for the very sort of protectionist tit-for-tat the Commerce Clause is meant to obviate, it should be reemphasized that the claiming rule is not protectionist in intent. As discussed above, the Commission has compelling reasons — racing integrity reasons, if you will — that have nothing to do with Kentucky tracks' competition with out-of state businesses for adopting some form of claiming rule that balances the risks/rewards to owners and potential purchasers, and thus has independent reason for as efficient a rule as experience with it can devise.
As we carefully examine the context of the Article 6 restriction, one other notable reality bears mention. Thoroughbred horse racing is, of course, a major sport, and as economists and courts have long noted, professional and collegiate sports operate under an unusual economic model. Specifically, the competitors — be they the teams of the National Football League, the member schools of the National Collegiate Athletic Association, or even individual golfers or tennis players — produce a product — competitive sporting events — "that inherently and uniquely cannot be produced by a single [competitor] acting alone." Nathaniel Grow, Regulating
Unlike football, golf, or car racing, horse racing is also a form of legalized gambling, an activity traditionally subject to public, not private, regulation. Waldrop, supra, at 400 (noting the potential commercial advantages of private, cooperative arrangements such as those employed by the major sports leagues, but discussing obstacles to such cooperative arrangements in horse racing, including the fact that "[h]istorically, the public has always been distrustful of privately regulated gambling operations"). The extensive state regulation of horse racing and the legalized gambling accompanying and supporting it means that, uniquely among the country's major sports, horse racing operates for the most part under a decentralized model, with each of the thirty-eight racing jurisdictions responsible for its own racing regulations. Even when separate jurisdictions recognize the desirability of a uniform approach to some aspect of the industry (such as the recognition by at least twenty-seven of the thirty-eight racing states that the claiming rule is appropriately coupled with a brief "jail" period) giving expression to that uniformity is cumbersome at best. Id. at 396 (noting that while the Association of Racing
Id. at 397.
All of this is meant to underscore the peculiar form of commerce at issue in this case and the need for Commerce Clause analysis sensitive to that peculiarity. We are not dealing with a product or service such as baitfish, Taylor, cantaloupe, Pike, natural gas, Tracy, or waste processing, United Haulers, which is needed by the populace and will be bought and sold irrespective of state regulations. Rather, our focus is on thoroughbreds which derive their commercial value solely from the fact that they can be bought and sold to race in state-regulated competitions and perhaps subsequently held for breeding purposes to produce new stock for future racing and the continuation of the sport. Whether their role in this unique competitive sport that depends on legalized gambling regulated by the various states would alone dictate different considerations for dormant Commerce Clause purposes, we need not decide because in addition to the uniqueness of the realm of thoroughbred commerce generally, the particular regulation at issue does not fit the comprehensive, unavoidable commercial "barrier" model that characterizes dormant Commerce Clause cases.
Superficially, at least, the most analogous type of dormant Commerce Clause case to the facts presented here are those where the Supreme Court has routinely struck down export embargoes, e.g., New England Power Co. v. New Hampshire, 455 U.S. 331, 102 S.Ct. 1096, 71 L.Ed.2d 188 (1982) (invalidating state's attempt to disallow export of electricity generated within the state), and local processing laws, e.g., Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. at 145, 90 S.Ct. 844 (invalidating requirement that state-grown cantaloupes be packed within the state and noting that "the Court has viewed with particular suspicion state statutes requiring business operations to be performed in the home State that could more efficiently be performed elsewhere."); South-Central Timber Dev., Inc. v. Wunnicke, 467 U.S. 82, 104 S.Ct. 2237, 81 L.Ed.2d 71 (1984) (plurality opinion deeming invalid Alaska's requirement that timber taken from state land be processed in Alaska before export). As in those cases, the Article 6 restrictions before this Court are triggered by the acquisition of property in this state, and the challenged restrictions limit (albeit very temporarily) the export of that property and encourage its use in Kentucky. These very general similarities do not, however, support the same result reached in the seemingly similar embargo and local processing cases because there are very significant differences in the regulations in those cases and Article 6.
Additionally, the Commerce Clause litigants in the Supreme Court cases we have reviewed (embargo cases, processing cases or otherwise) were strictly confined to the regulated form of commerce: if they wanted to deal in baitfish, cantaloupe, electricity or whatever article of commerce might be at issue, they had to do so in conformity with the challenged regulation — the alleged barrier to interstate commerce was unavoidable. That is simply not the case before us. As we have belabored, not only does Article 6 stem from legitimate racing (more specifically claim racing) concerns, it is a purely voluntarily-encountered regulation. It has no application to private sales or public auctions of thoroughbreds in Kentucky but applies only in the narrow circumstance where a buyer elects to take advantage of the unique purchasing opportunity available in a claiming race. If Jamgotchian wished to avoid the Article 6 restrictions he was free to purchase Rochitta (or another equally desirable thoroughbred) directly from her owner, with whatever attendant terms and costs that approach would entail.
In sum, however complex and confusing dormant Commerce Clause jurisprudence may be, we are confident that it is not aimed at and does not prohibit a temporary restriction encountered as part of a voluntarily-agreed-to sales transaction, a transaction with inherent commercial advantages to the purchaser not available if that purchaser proceeds in other available ways, i.e., a private sale or public auction. Article 6 serves a legitimate local purpose (as a component part of claiming race rules necessary to classification of thoroughbreds for competitive racing) in the first instance, and regardless of whether the claiming race rule could be structured differently and still achieve that purpose, the myriad opportunities to purchase thoroughbreds generally (including Rochitta herself) in Kentucky through means wholly untouched by this very temporally limited regulation dictate our conclusion that it survives strict scrutiny.
Finally, in a last gasp attempt to avoid the trial court's summary judgment, Jamgotchian invokes Healy v. The Beer Inst., Inc., 491 U.S. 324, 109 S.Ct. 2491, 105 L.Ed.2d 275 (1989) for the proposition that the Commerce Clause invalidates not only discriminatory state laws, but also such laws "that ha[ve] the `practical effect' of regulating commerce occurring wholly outside the State's borders." Id. at 332, 109 S.Ct. 2491. Jamgotchian did not present this "extraterritoriality" argument to the trial court or the Court of Appeals, and he presents it to us as a sort of afterthought with little discussion, but his contention seems to be that because the owner of a newly Kentucky-claimed thoroughbred is prohibited from racing the horse outside Kentucky for a prescribed time period, the regulation imposing that prohibition has "obvious and direct extraterritorial effect on the owner of that horse" and so runs afoul of Healy. Jamgotchian has not preserved this argument and we could deny consideration of it but, for completeness, choose to address it. Simply put, Jamgotchian reads Healy too broadly.
Healy addressed a Connecticut statute that required brewers and importers of beer to "affirm" monthly that their beer prices for in-state wholesalers were (and would remain) no higher than the lowest prices they would charge for those products in the states bordering Connecticut. The Supreme Court concluded the price-affirmation statute interacted with beer-pricing statutes in those bordering states in a manner which foreclosed the brewers/importers from altering their prices after the "moment of affirmation," id. at 338, 109 S.Ct. 2491, resulting in, for example, the Connecticut law controlling the price of beer in Massachusetts. Not surprisingly, the statute did not survive Commerce Clause analysis. However, Healy did not invalidate every state law with some effect on commercial transactions in another state. In United Haulers, for example, the challenged regulation mandated that local solid waste be processed at the local, county-run facility and thus in effect forbade solid waste haulers from disposing of their waste at out-of-state processing sites, an even stronger (because permanent) form of the "extraterritorial effect" Jamgotchian objects to here. Nevertheless, the regulation was upheld. In Pharmaceutical Research and Mfrs. of Am. v. Walsh, 538 U.S. 644, 123 S.Ct. 1855, 155 L.Ed.2d 889 (2003), moreover, the Supreme Court gave short shrift to the broad reading of Healy Jamgotchian urges. In Walsh, the Supreme Court rejected a Healy-based challenge to a Maine prescription
As Walsh indicates, Healy was not addressed to "extraterritorial effects" as such, but rather to attempts by one state "actually ... to regulate activities in other states." Midwest Title Loans, Inc. v. Mills, 593 F.3d 660, 665 (7th Cir.2010). In Midwest Title, for instance, the Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit invalidated under the Commerce Clause and Healy a "territorial application" provision of Indiana's consumer protection laws, whereby Indiana sought to apply those laws to Illinois automobile title-loan companies. The fact that the companies advertised in Indiana, the Court explained, did not justify the extraterritorial projection of Indiana's public policy onto the Illinois companies.
Unlike the price affirmation law at issue in Healy and the consumer protection laws at issue in Midwest Title, Article 6 is not an attempt by Kentucky, directly or indirectly, to regulate horse racing (or any other) activities in other states, and moreover the regulation does not have that unintended effect. Article 6 regulates, rather, claiming races at Kentucky's thoroughbred race tracks and it applies to persons, such as Jamgotchian, who participate in racing at those tracks in a manner that brings them within Kentucky's power to license and to regulate. The mere fact that Article 6 may have incidental effects outside Kentucky does not mean it is at odds with the Commerce Clause.
Jamgotchian also notes that the Healy Court voiced concern about competing state regulations that could subject those engaging in interstate commerce to conflicting obligations. 491 U.S. at 336-37, 109 S.Ct. 2491 ("Generally speaking, the Commerce Clause protects against inconsistent legislation arising from the projection of one state regulatory regime into the jurisdiction of another State."). See Nat'l Collegiate Athletic Ass'n v. Miller, 10 F.3d 633 (9th Cir.1993) (invalidating Nevada statute that imposed procedural rules on NCAA enforcement proceedings in part because the rules imposed by Nevada were inconsistent with rules imposed by other states). He asserts that Article 6 potentially exposes him to that sort of dilemma and so should be deemed invalid. Jamgotchian has not alleged any sort of actual conflict, however, and at first blush it is hard to imagine how another state is apt to create one. There seems little chance, after all, of another state's requiring him to race his newly Kentucky-claimed horse at one of its tracks, or forbidding him to race it in Kentucky. In short, Jamgotchian's belated extraterritoriality claim provides no basis for relief from Article 6.
In sum, while the lower courts' reliance on the "traditional government function" rationale of United Haulers and Davis was misplaced, their conclusion that Article 6 does not contravene the dormant Commerce Clause is correct. The trial court correctly determined that the temporary restrictions the Commission imposes through Article 6 on a thoroughbred owner's ability to race a horse that he or she claimed at a Kentucky track are not protectionist in any meaningful way. The fleeting restrictions serve a sufficiently important state interest — helping to ensure the integrity and viability of thoroughbred racing, one of this state's most important
All sitting. All concur.